Impact of Global Epidemiology of Bacterial Infections

Impact of Global Epidemiology of Bacterial Infections BABATUNDE OLUJIMI OLOGUNDE TOPIC: Discuss the impact of vaccination on the global epidemiology of bacterial infections. Bacterial infections are infections transmitted by pathogenic bacteria. Infection occurs when an organism enters into the host and establishes a relationship which may lead to a disease condition. According to (WHO.int/topics/epidemiology/en); most bacteria are harmless or are more or less beneficial while few are pathogenic. WHO noted that pathogenic bacteria contribute to the other globally important diseases such as pneumonia whose etiologic agents could be Streptococcus pneumoniae and Pseudomonas species. Pneumonia is an inflammatory condition of the lungs which affects primarily the microscopic air sacs called alveoli. Typical symptoms include cough, chest pain, fever and difficulty in breathing. (WHO.int/topics/epidemiology/en).For the purpose of this essay I will be talking about pathogenic bacteria. These are the bacteria that cause acute infections depending on their degree of virulence. Epidemiology, according to the British Medical Journal (BMJ) is the study of the frequency of occurrence of diseases among different groups of people. WHO defined epidemiology as the study of the spread and determinants of health related states or events such as disease condition, the application of epidemiology involves various methods investigations, surveillance and descriptive and analytical studies. The information obtained is very useful by both the government and the health Ministry to plan and evaluate ways to prevent such diseases. Also in patient already affected, epidemiological information serves as a guide to their management. Epidemiology helps the health workers to measure the disease outcomes among the population at risk. Vaccination: Prevention and control of bacterial infections can be achieved by vaccination. As the saying goes â€Å"prevention is better than cure†. Prevention includes vaccination as an environmental measure. Vaccination is the administration of antigenic material in order to stimulate the individual’s immune system to develop adaptive immunity to the pathogen. According to centre for Disease Control (CDC); disease prevention is a key to public health. CDC, opined that â€Å"vaccines are responsible for control† of many infectious diseases that were once common around the world. Examples of such diseases are diphtheria, pertusis, tetanus, Haemophilus influenzae and pneumonia. Mode of transmission ranges from mother to foetus, sperm to embryo, among families and social groups (The Marshall Protocol Knowledge Base). MPKB further stated that certain infections such as gonorrhea, influenza and common cold are transmitted through physical contact as in sexual intercourse, and droplets due to coughing and sneezing. Five papers were reviewed in this essay and critically analysed. 1. Maternal tetanus toxoid vaccination and neonatal mortality in rural North. India Singh et al (2012) The above Journal examined the impact of antenatal vaccination in rural India where neonatal mortality ways prevalent. In this paper, Singh et al, (2012) utilized the Indian National family Health Survey (NFHS), and analysed the death rate of singleton births with maternal tetanus vaccination as well as patient attending antenatal clinics being given folic acid and iron. Tetanus is caused by Clostridium tetani, a Gram – positive bacilli. In their observation, it was noted that part of the factors responsible for high mortality rate was lack of adequate health facility, in the larger poor society of the densely populated India. The paper further observed that there has been improvement in health condition of the rural population partly due to advances in production of vaccines as well as storage and its distribution. As a result of this they have further recorded a higher immunological response (Singh et al, 2012). This paper concluded that in their study of the socio economic aspects of the survey, it is evident that poorer older women rejected the vaccination. Furthermore, religion was also an important factor that militated against the success of the exercise especially Muslims women not only in India but other party of developing country such as Nigeria, Mali, Gambia, etc. (RAM F Singh A (2006). In their paper titled â€Å"is antenatal care effective in improving maternal health in rural ultar predesh?† Lastly, Singh et al (2012) concluded that in spite of the effort of the government through the agency of National Rural Health Mission to avail health care to all; the poor and the marginalized were still not taken care of adequately. 2. Impact of pneumococcal conjugate vaccination on otitis media – Taylor et al (2012). In this article, the authors Taylor et all aimed to investigate the impact of pneumococcal conjugate vaccination (PCV) for the protection of patients against acute otitis media (AOM). According to Taylor et al (2012). Acute otitis media (AOM) is among the foremost reasons for frequent hospitalization as well as prescription of antibiotics for young children. AOM is commonly reported among young children especially those within the age 1 – 3 years. The microbial pathogens implicated which account for 70 – 80% of samples collected from middle ear fluid are Streptococcus pneumoniae Haemophilus influenzae. The figure below shows observation data base studies in OM rate for years before and after 7 valent PCV introduction in year 2000. Taylor at al observed that it was difficult to find appropriate controls in a well – immunized population. They however noted that OM rates have reduced by approximately 10% as a result of the introduction of 7v CRM on a long term duration. Since Taylor et al (2012) suggested that influences other than the PC, were partly responsible for above 15% reduction, it follows that more research needs to be one to determine other factors that could be responsible for its reduction. 3. Bacterial meningitis: The impact of vaccination Makwana N Riordan FA (2007) In this article, the authors observed that one of the main causes of death among children under the age of 2 years is acute bacterial meningitis, due to the immaturity of their immune response to polysaccharide antigens. Makwana Riordan (2007) noted that as a result of the introduction of Haemophillus influenzae type 6 (Hib) conjugate vaccine there was a dramatic reduction in the occurrence of all invasive Hib diseases and that of meningitis, both in the United Kingdom and United State. However, while developed countries such as the UK and US have conveniently introduced the vaccines, most developing countries are in capacitated due to the huge cost (Makwana Riordan, 2007) 4. Inequity Worldwide; Andre et al (2007) In this article, Andre et al, opined that vaccines are primarily meant to prevent diseases and not necessarily for protection. However some vaccines are also for protection as well as prevention. They noted that in Finland, USA and other places across the globe, influenza vaccination was discovered to serve as protection against diseases related to the main target. They concluded that vaccination has immense benefit which extend beyond mere prevention of specific diseases in the patients. CONCLUSION Vaccination helps both children and adults According to Ranganathen et al. (2009), vaccination against Strept. pneumoniae have good evidence to support their use. The use of vaccine has led to decreased incidence of these infections in adults because many adults acquire infections from children Ranganathen et al. (2009), observed that streptococcal pneumonia vaccine is available for adults and has been found to decrease the risk of invasive pneumococcal disease. In the summary of the article by Andre et al (2007), they opined that a comprehensive vaccination programme is necessary for good public health and this will go a long way in minimizing inequities and poverty globally. In order to globally combat most of not all, these pathogenic bacterial infections, the developed countries would need to come to the aid of the less developed or the developing countries through the agency of WHO. As much as he less privileged countries are willing to be free from the global epidemic, the huge cost of the procurement of the vaccines is a major hindrance as well as religion beliefs especially the Muslim communities in Africa. REFERENCES: The Marshall Protocol Knowledge Base: Autoimmunity Research Foundation Makwana, N Riordan FA; Bacterial meningitis: The impact of vaccination (year) Taylor S, Marchisco P, Vergison A, Harriagne J, Handsdorf WP, Hanggard M; Impact of pneumococcal conjugate vaccination on otitis media: A systematic review 2012:54 (12):1765 – 73 Sinah A, Pallikadavath S, Ogollah R, Stones W. Maternal Tetanus Toxoid Vaccination and Neonatal mortality in Rural North India. 2012; vol 7: issue 11.

Enola Gay Essay

August 6, 1945 by Alison Fell In the Enola Gay five minutes before impact he whistles a dry tune Later he will say that the whole blooming sky went up like an apricot ice. Later he will laugh and tremble at such a surrender, for the eye of his belly saw Marilyn’s skirts fly over her head for ever On the river bank, bees drizzle over hot white rhododendrons Later she will walk the dust, a scarlet girl with her whole stripped skin at her heel, stuck like an old shoe sole or mermaid’s tail Later she will lie down in the flecked black ash where the people are become as lizards or salamanders and, blinded, she will complain Mother you are late. So late Later in dreams he will look down shrieking and see ladybirds ladybirds Bombing Repetition Simile Female View Personification Alliteraion Male View Pronouns GLOSSARY ‘Enola Gay’: this was the name given to (and painted on) the plane which carried the bomb to Hiroshima. The pilot’s mother was called Enola Gay. ‘Marilyn’s skirts’: there is a famous film clip/still photograph of the American movie star Marilyn Monroe, in which she walks over a pavement air vent and the warm air from it blows the full skirt of her light-coloured dress upwards over her head. ‘drizzle’: this means ‘rain lightly’, but here is used to evoke the way the bees descend, buzzing, on to the flowers. ‘salamanders’: a salamander is a lizard-like amphibian with a smooth skin. In ancient legend salamanders were supposed to be able to live in fire. ‘ladybirds’: there are numerous versions (not all in English) of the nursery rhyme which begins, ‘Ladybird, ladybird, fly away home, Your house is on fire and your children are gone’. There are numerous explanations for it, too. Ladybirds are quite difficult to dislodge, and the rhyme, when recited, was traditionally supposed to induce them to fly off of their own accord.

Why Everyone Is Talking About Essay Ppt Samples and What You Have to Do

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Life After September 11 - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 5 Words: 1626 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2019/08/16 Category History Essay Level High school Tags: 9/11 Essay Did you like this example? The United States consists of many different races and many different types of people, but our country has the capacity to hold a lot more. Immigration is on the minds of almost all citizens at a time where letting one person in could be the downfall of our country.   Bret Stephens, an opinion columnist from the New York Times wrote an article called Our Real Immigration Problem. He talks about the importance of having completely open borders, and the prolonged benefits of it for our country. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Life After September 11" essay for you Create order America is a country of opportunity and no matter what race, anyone can be beneficial. Immigrants are striving for the American Dream, and everyone that comes to this country can be a part of something while being beneficial to our country.   Although I am an opponent to open borders for everyone, it is necessary to understand that not everyone shares the same opinion as I do. Opponents to strict immigration, such as Bret Stephens, believe that opening our borders will be extremely beneficial to the country if all terrorists and criminals stay out (Stephens).   At a time where immigration is a main focal point in our society, congress is split on what do with an immigration bill. Both Republicans and Democrats are split in congress on whether to have more open borders or keep them closed. The Trump administration had been forcibly separating migrant Latin American children from their parents causing a moral outrage within the community (Stephens). The Republicans are endlessly trying to pass a comprehensive immigration bill, so they can solve the immigration crisis (Stephens). The country needs real immigration reform, so it can solve many problems that immigrants face when trying to get citizenship. This comes at an act of decency toward so called dreamers brought to this country as children by their undocumented parents (Stephens). The real problem that is emphasized in the article is that, our country needs more immigrants. The percentage of our population that consists of legal immigrants is extremely low, making it very wise and benefi cial to allow a lot more immigrants in. Those immigrants have dreams just like all Americans, causing for many of them to be very successful and have steady jobs throughout their time here. They can support and make our country better off than it ever has been. Fewer and fewer children are being born every day due to the values that our society has about one another (Stephens). The article brings up multiple different facts about immigration and the effect it has on our country. One of them stating that The U.S. fertility rate has fallen to a record low. In May, The Times reported that women had nearly 500,000 fewer babies than in 2007, despite the fact that there were an estimated 7 percent more women in their prime childbearing years. (Stephens). Having a decline in child births means fewer and fewer Americans who can hold jobs and support the country. The change in child birth over the years will end up causing issues in the workforce, making it necessary to have immigrants come in and fill many of those positions. Many immigrants make just as good of citizens because of their drive for success. Not only are fewer Americans being born, but Americans in general are getting older.   As our country progresses, and our health services get better every single day, it becomes very easy to live over the age of sixty-five. Once someone becomes over that age, they dont contribute to society as much because of retirement causing a need for others to fill in. Immigrants are some of the best employees who work just as hard (Stephens). Americans are getting older, there were more than forty million Americans over the age of sixty-five in 2010 and that number is continuously rising (Stephens). By 2050 the number will be closer to 90 million, or an estimated 22.1 percent of the population (Stephens). This will be a rising concern in the near future and one way to combat that is by letting immigrants in who believe in the same values that we value on a daily basis. Mostly everyone that is let inside of our borders has the American dream inspired into them which translates over into our labor industries.   Our country is falling short in participation for many different industries, as well as having much of small town/rural community emptying out. There is immense amount of job opportunities available from farming to high skilled jobs which are able to fill the needs of many immigrants that want to come here. The Federal Reserve has stated multiple labor shortages in many different industries, one of them being the farm industry, where nearly 20% of its participants were lost from 2002 – 2014 (Stephens). This accounts for a three-billion-dollar loss in revenue a year, which could be solved by allowing immigrants of all types to take that role (Stephens). Much of rural America is emptying out, which is seen in many rural counties where more people are dying rather than being born (Stephens). This is a major reason why the farming industry is losing ample amounts of participants each year. The drive and determination embodied in a lot of immigrants can solve the problem of our sma ll towns emptying out. The American Values of drive and determination are evident in the lives of outsiders and they would make an incredible fit to much of America that is frowned upon, rural America. There is a major shortage of people in rural America, and our population of immigrants is low compared to other countries.   Other countries around the world dont have the major conflictions that we do about immigration. Because of our intense immigration laws, it is hard to have a high population of immigrants and that is evident. The immigrant share (including the undocumented) of the U.S. population is not especially large: About 13.5 percent, high by recent history but below its late 19th century peak of 14.8 percent. In Israel, the share is 22.6 percent; in Australia, 27.7 percent (Stephens). Compared to other countries, most of our population consists of true Americans born here. Millions of people have a very tough time making it here from other countries, even though they have the same values and same intentions as every single American.   Of all the people inside our country, the citizens that convey the values of true freedom and democracy are the immigrants who werent born here to begin with. Those immigrants legal or otherwise are more entrepreneurial, more church-going, less likely to have kids out of wedlock, and far less likely to commit a crime (Stephens). These are some characteristics that millions of immigrants convey on a daily basis. They care about waking up every day with more than they had before. They have the drive and determination to be successful in any type of job or position and that is evident by each person going through the process of citizenship. It is easy to be born here and take everything for granted, but it is very hard for someone to lack those skills when they grew up somewhere else striving to do so much more. America is a country of opportunity and there are millions of more people that look to come here and achieve that opportunity whether it means working in a grocery store or work ing with a high-ranking firm in a major city.   As Bret Stephens goes through the article focusing on the importance of Immigration and how beneficial it is to our country, it is safe to say that he is targeting skeptical conservatives. In his underlying beliefs of immigrants achieving the American dream and that all immigrants can be beneficial, he is trying to prove to skeptical conservatives to switch their values on this sensitive topic. He wants these people to understand the values of immigrants and what they can be to this country, so they can show a greater appreciation for liberal values. Bret Stephens has the ability to convince millions of people about the opportunities available for aspiring citizens.  Ã‚   We are living in a country with immense amounts of opportunity and there is plenty of room for a lot more people. Whether it be based on American birth rates, the number of older citizens already, labor shortages, or the lowering number of citizens in small towns, it is necessary to have immigrants who can fulfill the duties of many Americans in a more effective way.   Even though I dont believe in having open borders for all, it is completely in my best interests and everyones to understand the importance millions of immigrants can have on our country because of their beliefs and actions. The article written by Bret Stephens shows the underlying characteristics that most immigrants possess. These people are firm believers in our democracy and freedom that we convey daily, as well as the determination and dedication. They are exemplary examples of what a true American should be and there is plenty of room in our country for them. The immigration laws set in place are outrageous to all the law-abiding people aspiring to be citizens and it is necessary to take them away because of the strong American beliefs immigrants have engrained inside of them. If the select few terrorists and criminals were abolished from this world, open borders would be the most important aspect to our success as a country (Stephens). They could make a change for the better and fulfil most of Americas values better than many natural born citizens. Each immigrant is capable of achieving the American dream and they are all extremely useful to the United States. Bibliography Stephens, Bret. Our Real Immigration Problem. The New York Times, The New York Times, 21 June 2018, www.nytimes.com/2018/06/21/opinion/trump-immigration-reform.html?register=emailauth=register-email.